Skip to main content
Advertisement

Main menu

  • Home
  • Content
    • Current Issue
    • Accepted Manuscripts
    • Article Preview
    • Past Issue Archive
    • Video Articles
    • AJNR Case Collection
    • Case of the Week Archive
    • Case of the Month Archive
    • Classic Case Archive
  • Special Collections
    • AJNR Awards
    • Low-Field MRI
    • Alzheimer Disease
    • ASNR Foundation Special Collection
    • Photon-Counting CT
    • View All
  • Multimedia
    • AJNR Podcasts
    • AJNR SCANtastic
    • Trainee Corner
    • MRI Safety Corner
    • Imaging Protocols
  • For Authors
    • Submit a Manuscript
    • Submit a Video Article
    • Submit an eLetter to the Editor/Response
    • Manuscript Submission Guidelines
    • Statistical Tips
    • Fast Publishing of Accepted Manuscripts
    • Graphical Abstract Preparation
    • Imaging Protocol Submission
    • Author Policies
  • About Us
    • About AJNR
    • Editorial Board
    • Editorial Board Alumni
  • More
    • Become a Reviewer/Academy of Reviewers
    • Subscribers
    • Permissions
    • Alerts
    • Feedback
    • Advertisers
    • ASNR Home

User menu

  • Alerts
  • Log in

Search

  • Advanced search
American Journal of Neuroradiology
American Journal of Neuroradiology

American Journal of Neuroradiology

ASHNR American Society of Functional Neuroradiology ASHNR American Society of Pediatric Neuroradiology ASSR
  • Alerts
  • Log in

Advanced Search

  • Home
  • Content
    • Current Issue
    • Accepted Manuscripts
    • Article Preview
    • Past Issue Archive
    • Video Articles
    • AJNR Case Collection
    • Case of the Week Archive
    • Case of the Month Archive
    • Classic Case Archive
  • Special Collections
    • AJNR Awards
    • Low-Field MRI
    • Alzheimer Disease
    • ASNR Foundation Special Collection
    • Photon-Counting CT
    • View All
  • Multimedia
    • AJNR Podcasts
    • AJNR SCANtastic
    • Trainee Corner
    • MRI Safety Corner
    • Imaging Protocols
  • For Authors
    • Submit a Manuscript
    • Submit a Video Article
    • Submit an eLetter to the Editor/Response
    • Manuscript Submission Guidelines
    • Statistical Tips
    • Fast Publishing of Accepted Manuscripts
    • Graphical Abstract Preparation
    • Imaging Protocol Submission
    • Author Policies
  • About Us
    • About AJNR
    • Editorial Board
    • Editorial Board Alumni
  • More
    • Become a Reviewer/Academy of Reviewers
    • Subscribers
    • Permissions
    • Alerts
    • Feedback
    • Advertisers
    • ASNR Home
  • Follow AJNR on Twitter
  • Visit AJNR on Facebook
  • Follow AJNR on Instagram
  • Join AJNR on LinkedIn
  • RSS Feeds

AJNR Awards, New Junior Editors, and more. Read the latest AJNR updates

Review ArticleAdult Brain
Open Access

Recognizing Autoimmune-Mediated Encephalitis in the Differential Diagnosis of Limbic Disorders

A.J. da Rocha, R.H. Nunes, A.C.M. Maia and L.L.F. do Amaral
American Journal of Neuroradiology December 2015, 36 (12) 2196-2205; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A4408
A.J. da Rocha
aFrom the Division of Neuroradiology (A.J.d.R., R.H.N., A.C.M.M., L.L.F.d.A.), Santa Casa de São Paulo School of Medical Sciences, São Paulo, Brazil
bDivision of Neuroradiology (A.J.d.R., R.H.N., A.C.M.M.), Fleury Medicina e Saúde, São Paulo, Brazil
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
  • ORCID record for A.J. da Rocha
R.H. Nunes
aFrom the Division of Neuroradiology (A.J.d.R., R.H.N., A.C.M.M., L.L.F.d.A.), Santa Casa de São Paulo School of Medical Sciences, São Paulo, Brazil
bDivision of Neuroradiology (A.J.d.R., R.H.N., A.C.M.M.), Fleury Medicina e Saúde, São Paulo, Brazil
cResearch Fellow, University of North Carolina (R.H.N.), Chapel Hill, North Carolina
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
  • ORCID record for R.H. Nunes
A.C.M. Maia Jr
aFrom the Division of Neuroradiology (A.J.d.R., R.H.N., A.C.M.M., L.L.F.d.A.), Santa Casa de São Paulo School of Medical Sciences, São Paulo, Brazil
bDivision of Neuroradiology (A.J.d.R., R.H.N., A.C.M.M.), Fleury Medicina e Saúde, São Paulo, Brazil
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
L.L.F. do Amaral
aFrom the Division of Neuroradiology (A.J.d.R., R.H.N., A.C.M.M., L.L.F.d.A.), Santa Casa de São Paulo School of Medical Sciences, São Paulo, Brazil
dDivision of Neuroradiology (L.L.F.d.A.), Med Imagem, Hospital da Beneficência Portuguesa de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
  • Article
  • Figures & Data
  • Info & Metrics
  • Responses
  • References
  • PDF
Loading

REFERENCES

  1. 1.↵
    1. Brierley JB,
    2. Corsellis JA,
    3. Hierons R, et al
    . Subacute encephalitis of later adult life mainly affecting the limbic areas. Brain 1960;83:357–68 doi:10.1093/brain/83.3.357
    FREE Full Text
  2. 2.↵
    1. Vernino S,
    2. Geschwind M,
    3. Boeve B
    . Autoimmune encephalopathies. Neurologist 2007;13:140–47 doi:10.1097/01.nrl.0000259483.70041.55 pmid:17495758
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  3. 3.↵
    1. Tüzun E,
    2. Dalmau J
    . Limbic encephalitis and variants: classification, diagnosis and treatment. Neurologist 2007;13:261–71 doi:10.1097/NRL.0b013e31813e34a5 pmid:17848866
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  4. 4.↵
    1. Gultekin SH,
    2. Rosenfeld MR,
    3. Voltz R, et al
    . Paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis: neurological symptoms, immunological findings and tumour association in 50 patients. Brain 2000;123(pt 7):1481–94 doi:10.1093/brain/123.7.1481 pmid:10869059
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  5. 5.↵
    1. Vieira Santos A,
    2. Matias S,
    3. Saraiva P, et al
    . Differential diagnosis of mesiotemporal lesions: case report of neurosyphilis. Neuroradiology 2005;47:664–67 doi:10.1007/s00234-005-1414-4 pmid:16021441
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  6. 6.↵
    1. Kararizou E,
    2. Markou I,
    3. Zalonis I, et al
    . Paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis presenting as acute viral encephalitis. J Neurooncol 2005;75:229–32 doi:10.1007/s11060-005-3671-9 pmid:16283448
    CrossRefPubMed
  7. 7.↵
    1. Tyler KL
    . Emerging viral infections of the central nervous system: part 1. Arch Neurol 2009;66:939–48 doi:10.1001/archneurol.2009.153 pmid:19667214
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  8. 8.↵
    1. Nagata R,
    2. Ikeda K,
    3. Nakamura Y, et al
    . A case of gliomatosis cerebri mimicking limbic encephalitis: malignant transformation to glioblastoma. Int Med 2010;49:1307–10 doi:10.2169/internalmedicine.49.3278 pmid:20606365
    CrossRefPubMed
  9. 9.↵
    1. Förster A,
    2. Griebe M,
    3. Gass A, et al
    . Diffusion-weighted imaging for the differential diagnosis of disorders affecting the hippocampus. Cerebrovasc Dis 2012;33:104–15 doi:10.1159/000332036 pmid:22179485
    CrossRefPubMed
  10. 10.↵
    1. Armangue T,
    2. Leypoldt F,
    3. Dalmau J
    . Autoimmune encephalitis as differential diagnosis of infectious encephalitis. Curr Opin Neurol 2014;27:361–68 doi:10.1097/WCO.0000000000000087 pmid:24792345
    CrossRefPubMed
  11. 11.↵
    1. Kotsenas AL,
    2. Watson RE,
    3. Pittock SJ, et al
    . MRI findings in autoimmune voltage-gated potassium channel complex encephalitis with seizures: one potential etiology for mesial temporal sclerosis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2014;35:84–89 doi:10.3174/ajnr.A3633 pmid:23868165
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  12. 12.↵
    1. Oyanguren B,
    2. Sánchez V,
    3. González FJ, et al
    . Limbic encephalitis: a clinical-radiological comparison between herpetic and autoimmune etiologies. Eur J Neurol 2013;20:1566–70 doi:10.1111/ene.12249 pmid:23941332
    CrossRefPubMed
  13. 13.↵
    1. Dalmau J,
    2. Bataller L
    . Clinical and immunological diversity of limbic encephalitis: a model for paraneoplastic neurologic disorders. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2006;20:1319–35 doi:10.1016/j.hoc.2006.09.011 pmid:17113466
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  14. 14.↵
    1. Demaerel P,
    2. Van Dessel W,
    3. Van Paesschen W, et al
    . Autoimmune-mediated encephalitis. Neuroradiology 2011;53:837–51 doi:10.1007/s00234-010-0832-0 pmid:21271243
    CrossRefPubMed
  15. 15.↵
    1. Darnell RB,
    2. Posner JB
    . Paraneoplastic syndromes involving the nervous system. N Engl J Med 2003;349:1543–54 doi:10.1056/NEJMra023009 pmid:14561798
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  16. 16.↵
    1. Dalmau J,
    2. Rosenfeld MR
    . Autoimmune encephalitis update. Neuro Oncol 2014;16:771–78 doi:10.1093/neuonc/nou030 pmid:24637228
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  17. 17.↵
    1. Graus F,
    2. Ariño H,
    3. Dalmau J
    . Paraneoplastic neurological syndromes in Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphomas. Blood 2014;123:3230–38 doi:10.1182/blood-2014-03-537506 pmid:24705493
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  18. 18.↵
    1. Graus F,
    2. Keime-Guibert F,
    3. Reñe R, et al
    . Anti-Hu-associated paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis: analysis of 200 patients. Brain 2001;124(pt 6):1138–48 doi:10.1093/brain/124.6.1138 pmid:11353730
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  19. 19.↵
    1. Shavit YB,
    2. Graus F,
    3. Probst A, et al
    . Epilepsia partialis continua: a new manifestation of anti-Hu-associated paraneoplastic encephalomyelitis. Ann Neurol 1999;45:255–58 doi:10.1002/1531-8249(199902)45:23.0.CO;2-N pmid:9989630
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  20. 20.↵
    1. Keime-Guibert F,
    2. Graus F,
    3. Fleury A, et al
    . Treatment of paraneoplastic neurological syndromes with antineuronal antibodies (Anti-Hu, anti-Yo) with a combination of immunoglobulins, cyclophosphamide, and methylprednisolone. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2000;68:479–82 doi:10.1136/jnnp.68.4.479 pmid:10727484
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  21. 21.↵
    1. Rosenfeld MR,
    2. Eichen JG,
    3. Wade DF, et al
    . Molecular and clinical diversity in paraneoplastic immunity to Ma proteins. Ann Neurol 2001;50:339–48 doi:10.1002/ana.1288 pmid:11558790
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  22. 22.↵
    1. Dalmau J,
    2. Graus F,
    3. Villarejo A, et al
    . Clinical analysis of anti-Ma2-associated encephalitis. Brain 2004;127(pt 8):1831–44 doi:10.1093/brain/awh203 pmid:15215214
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  23. 23.↵
    1. Dalmau J,
    2. Gultekin SH,
    3. Voltz R, et al
    . Ma1, a novel neuron- and testis-specific protein, is recognized by the serum of patients with paraneoplastic neurological disorders. Brain 1999;122(pt 1):27–39 doi:10.1093/brain/122.1.27 pmid:10050892
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  24. 24.↵
    1. Honnorat J,
    2. Cartalat-Carel S,
    3. Ricard D, et al
    . Onco-neural antibodies and tumour type determine survival and neurological symptoms in paraneoplastic neurological syndromes with Hu or CV2/CRMP5 antibodies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2009;80:412–16 doi:10.1136/jnnp.2007.138016 pmid:18931014
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  25. 25.↵
    1. Vernino S,
    2. Tuite P,
    3. Adler CH, et al
    . Paraneoplastic chorea associated with CRMP-5 neuronal antibody and lung carcinoma. Ann Neurol 2002;51:625–30 doi:10.1002/ana.10178 pmid:12112110
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  26. 26.↵
    1. Gable MS,
    2. Sheriff H,
    3. Dalmau J, et al
    . The frequency of autoimmune N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis surpasses that of individual viral etiologies in young individuals enrolled in the California Encephalitis Project. Clin Infect Dis 2012;54:899–904 doi:10.1093/cid/cir1038 pmid:22281844
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  27. 27.↵
    1. Titulaer MJ,
    2. McCracken L,
    3. Gabilondo I, et al
    . Treatment and prognostic factors for long-term outcome in patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: an observational cohort study. Lancet Neurol 2013;12:157–65 doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70310-1 pmid:23290630
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  28. 28.↵
    1. Irani SR,
    2. Bera K,
    3. Waters P, et al
    . N-methyl-D-aspartate antibody encephalitis: temporal progression of clinical and paraclinical observations in a predominantly non-paraneoplastic disorder of both sexes. Brain 2010;133(pt 6):1655–67 doi:10.1093/brain/awq113 pmid:20511282
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  29. 29.↵
    1. Kayser MS,
    2. Titulaer MJ,
    3. Gresa-Arribas N, et al
    . Frequency and characteristics of isolated psychiatric episodes in anti–N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis. JAMA Neurol 2013;70:1133–39 doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.3216 pmid:23877059
    CrossRefPubMed
  30. 30.↵
    1. Dalmau J,
    2. Gleichman AJ,
    3. Hughes EG, et al
    . Anti-NMDA-receptor encephalitis: case series and analysis of the effects of antibodies. Lancet Neurol 2008;7:1091–98 doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70224-2 pmid:18851928
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  31. 31.↵
    1. Dalmau J,
    2. Tüzün E,
    3. Wu HY, et al
    . Paraneoplastic anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis associated with ovarian teratoma. Ann Neurol 2007;61:25–36 doi:10.1002/ana.21050 pmid:17262855
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  32. 32.↵
    1. Titulaer MJ,
    2. McCracken L,
    3. Gabilondo I, et al
    . Late-onset anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. Neurology 2013;81:1058–63 doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182a4a49c pmid:23946310
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  33. 33.↵
    1. Johnson N,
    2. Henry C,
    3. Fessler AJ, et al
    . Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis causing prolonged nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Neurology 2010;75:1480–82 doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181f8831a pmid:20826712
    FREE Full Text
  34. 34.↵
    1. Lancaster E,
    2. Lai M,
    3. Peng X, et al
    . Antibodies to the GABA(B) receptor in limbic encephalitis with seizures: case series and characterisation of the antigen. Lancet Neurol 2010;9:67–76 doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70324-2 pmid:19962348
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  35. 35.↵
    1. Höftberger R,
    2. Titulaer MJ,
    3. Sabater L, et al
    . Encephalitis and GABAB receptor antibodies: novel findings in a new case series of 20 patients. Neurology 2013;81:1500–06 doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182a9585f pmid:24068784
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  36. 36.↵
    1. Boronat A,
    2. Sabater L,
    3. Saiz A, et al
    . GABA(B) receptor antibodies in limbic encephalitis and anti-GAD-associated neurologic disorders. Neurology 2011;76:795–800 doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e31820e7b8d pmid:21357831
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  37. 37.↵
    1. Petit-Pedrol M,
    2. Armangue T,
    3. Peng X, et al
    . Encephalitis with refractory seizures, status epilepticus, and antibodies to the GABAA receptor: a case series, characterisation of the antigen, and analysis of the effects of antibodies. Lancet Neurol 2014;13:276–86 doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(13)70299-0 pmid:24462240
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  38. 38.↵
    1. Graus F,
    2. Boronat A,
    3. Xifró X, et al
    . The expanding clinical profile of anti-AMPA receptor encephalitis. Neurology 2010;74:857–59 doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181d3e404 pmid:20211911
    FREE Full Text
  39. 39.↵
    1. Carr I
    . The Ophelia syndrome: memory loss in Hodgkin's disease. Lancet 1982;1:844–45 pmid:6122069
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  40. 40.↵
    1. Mat A,
    2. Adler H,
    3. Merwick A, et al
    . Ophelia syndrome with metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 antibodies in CSF. Neurology 2013;80:1349–50 doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e31828ab325 pmid:23486886
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  41. 41.↵
    1. Malter MP,
    2. Helmstaedter C,
    3. Urbach H, et al
    . Antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase define a form of limbic encephalitis. Ann Neurol 2010;67:470–78 doi:10.1002/ana.21917 pmid:20437582
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  42. 42.↵
    1. Grau-Rivera O,
    2. Sánchez-Valle R,
    3. Saiz A, et al
    . Determination of neuronal antibodies in suspected and definite Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. JAMA Neurol 2014;71:74–78 doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.4857 pmid:24248099
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  43. 43.↵
    1. Paterson RW,
    2. Zandi MS,
    3. Armstrong R, et al
    . Clinical relevance of positive voltage-gated potassium channel (VGKC)-complex antibodies: experience from a tertiary referral centre. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2014;85:625–30 doi:10.1136/jnnp-2013-305218 pmid:23757422
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  44. 44.↵
    1. Irani SR,
    2. Michell AW,
    3. Lang B, et al
    . Faciobrachial dystonic seizures precede Lgi1 antibody limbic encephalitis. Ann Neurol 2011;69:892–900 doi:10.1002/ana.22307 pmid:21416487
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  45. 45.↵
    1. Hiraga A,
    2. Kuwabara S,
    3. Hayakawa S, et al
    . Voltage-gated potassium channel antibody-associated encephalitis with basal ganglia lesions. Neurology 2006;66:1780–81 doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000218157.53333.79 pmid:16769968
    FREE Full Text
  46. 46.↵
    1. Majoie HJ,
    2. de Baets M,
    3. Renier W, et al
    . Antibodies to voltage-gated potassium and calcium channels in epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 2006;71:135–41 doi:10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2006.06.003 pmid:16870397
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  47. 47.↵
    1. Vincent A,
    2. Buckley C,
    3. Schott JM, et al
    . Potassium channel antibody-associated encephalopathy: a potentially immunotherapy-responsive form of limbic encephalitis. Brain 2004;127(pt 3):701–12 doi:10.1093/brain/awh077 pmid:14960497
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  48. 48.↵
    1. Lancaster E,
    2. Huijbers MG,
    3. Bar V, et al
    . Investigations of caspr2, an autoantigen of encephalitis and neuromyotonia. Ann Neurol 2011;69:303–11 doi:10.1002/ana.22297 pmid:21387375
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  49. 49.↵
    1. Blanc F,
    2. Ben Abdelghani K,
    3. Schramm F, et al
    . Whipple limbic encephalitis. Arch Neurol 2011;68:1471–73 doi:10.1001/archneurol.2011.532 pmid:22084133
    CrossRefPubMed
  50. 50.↵
    1. Badruddin A,
    2. Menon RS,
    3. Reder AT
    . 4-Aminopyridine toxicity mimics autoimmune-mediated limbic encephalitis. Neurology 2009;72:1100–01 doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000345063.17185.13 pmid:19307545
    FREE Full Text
  51. 51.↵
    1. Boeve BF,
    2. Bell DG,
    3. Noseworthy JH
    . Bilateral temporal lobe MRI changes in uncomplicated hypoglycemic coma. Can J Neurol Sci 1995;22:56–8 pmid:7750077
    PubMed
  52. 52.↵
    1. Baringer JR
    . Herpes simplex infections of the nervous system. Neurol Clin 2008;26:657–74, viii doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2008.03.005 pmid:18657720
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  53. 53.↵
    1. Armangue T,
    2. Leypoldt F,
    3. Málaga I, et al
    . Herpes simplex virus encephalitis is a trigger of brain autoimmunity. Ann Neurol 2014;75:317–23 doi:10.1002/ana.24083 pmid:24318406
    CrossRefPubMed
  54. 54.↵
    1. Schäbitz WR,
    2. Rogalewski A,
    3. Hagemeister C, et al
    . VZV brainstem encephalitis triggers NMDA receptor immunoreaction. Neurology 2014;83:2309–11 doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000001072 pmid:25378669
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  55. 55.↵
    1. Höftberger R,
    2. Armangue T,
    3. Leypoldt F, et al
    . Clinical neuropathology practice guide 4–2013: post-herpes simplex encephalitis: N-methyl-Daspartate receptor antibodies are part of the problem. Clin Neuropathol 2013;32:251–54 doi:10.5414/NP300666 pmid:23806220
    CrossRefPubMed
  56. 56.↵
    1. Karsan N,
    2. Barker R,
    3. O'Dwyer JP
    . Clinical reasoning: the “great imitator.” Neurology 2014;83:e188–96 doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000001033 pmid:25422404
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  57. 57.↵
    1. Vates GE,
    2. Chang S,
    3. Lamborn KR, et al
    . Gliomatosis cerebri: a review of 22 cases. Neurosurgery 2003;53:261–71, discussion 271 doi:10.1227/01.NEU.0000073527.20655.E6 pmid:12925240
    CrossRefPubMed
  58. 58.↵
    1. Maia AC Jr.,
    2. Malheiros SM,
    3. da Rocha AJ, et al
    . Stereotactic biopsy guidance in adults with supratentorial nonenhancing gliomas: role of perfusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging. J Neurosurg 2004;101:970–76 doi:10.3171/jns.2004.101.6.0970 pmid:15597757
    CrossRefPubMed
  59. 59.↵
    1. Sedlaczek O,
    2. Hirsch JG,
    3. Grips E, et al
    . Detection of delayed focal MR changes in the lateral hippocampus in transient global amnesia. Neurology 2004;62:2165–70 doi:10.1212/01.WNL.0000130504.88404.C9 pmid:15210876
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  60. 60.↵
    1. Cendes F
    . Febrile seizures and mesial temporal sclerosis. Curr Opin Neurol 2004;17:161–64 doi:10.1097/00019052-200404000-00013 pmid:15021243
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  61. 61.↵
    1. Kim JA,
    2. Chung JI,
    3. Yoon PH, et al
    . Transient MR signal changes in patients with generalized tonicoclonic seizure or status epilepticus: periictal diffusion-weighted imaging. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2001;22:1149–60 pmid:11415912
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  62. 62.↵
    1. Cox JE,
    2. Mathews VP,
    3. Santos CC, et al
    . Seizure-induced transient hippocampal abnormalities on MR: correlation with positron emission tomography and electroencephalography. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1995;16:1736–38 pmid:7502985
    Abstract
  63. 63.↵
    1. Hatanpaa KJ,
    2. Blass DM,
    3. Pletnikova O, et al
    . Most cases of dementia with hippocampal sclerosis may represent frontotemporal dementia. Neurology 2004;63:538–42 doi:10.1212/01.WNL.0000129543.46734.C0 pmid:15304590
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  64. 64.↵
    1. Caraballo RH,
    2. Reyes G,
    3. Avaria MF, et al
    . Febrile infection-related epilepsy syndrome: a study of 12 patients. Seizure 2013;22:553–59 doi:10.1016/j.seizure.2013.04.005 pmid:23643626
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  65. 65.↵
    1. van Baalen A,
    2. Häusler M,
    3. Boor R, et al
    . Febrile infection-related epilepsy syndrome (FIRES): a nonencephalitic encephalopathy in childhood. Epilepsia 2010;51:1323–28 doi:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2010.02535.x pmid:20345937
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  66. 66.↵
    1. Venkatesan A,
    2. Benavides DR
    . Autoimmune encephalitis and its relation to infection. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2015;15:3 doi:10.1007/s11910-015-0529 pmid:25637289
    CrossRefPubMed
  67. 67.↵
    1. Castillo P,
    2. Woodruff B,
    3. Caselli R, et al
    . Steroid-responsive encephalopathy associated with autoimmune thyroiditis. Arch Neurol 2006;63:197–202 doi:10.1001/archneur.63.2.197 pmid:16476807
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  68. 68.↵
    1. Hollowell JG,
    2. Staehling NW,
    3. Flanders WD, et al
    . Serum TSH, T(4), and thyroid antibodies in the United States population (1988 to 1994): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:489–99 doi:10.1210/jcem.87.2.8182 pmid:11836274
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  69. 69.↵
    1. Ferracci F,
    2. Carnevale A
    . The neurological disorder associated with thyroid autoimmunity. J Neurol 2006;253:975–84 doi:10.1007/s00415-006-0170-7 pmid:16786216
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  70. 70.↵
    1. Song YM,
    2. Seo DW,
    3. Chang GY
    . MR findings in Hashimoto encephalopathy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2004;25:807–08 pmid:15140725
    Abstract/FREE Full Text
  71. 71.↵
    1. Fujiki F,
    2. Tsuboi Y,
    3. Hashimoto K, et al
    . Non-herpetic limbic encephalitis associated with relapsing polychondritis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004;75:1646–47 doi:10.1136/jnnp.2003.035170 pmid:15489409
    FREE Full Text
  72. 72.↵
    1. Kumar N,
    2. Leep Hunderfund AN,
    3. Kutzbach BR, et al
    . A limbic encephalitis MR imaging in a patient with Behcet disease and relapsing polychondritis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2009;30:E96 doi:10.3174/ajnr.A1631 pmid:19386730
    FREE Full Text
  73. 73.↵
    1. Foidart JM,
    2. Abe S,
    3. Martin GR, et al
    . Antibodies to type II collagen in relapsing polychondritis. N Engl J Med 1978;299:1203–07 doi:10.1056/NEJM197811302992202 pmid:714080
    CrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
PreviousNext
Back to top

In this issue

American Journal of Neuroradiology: 36 (12)
American Journal of Neuroradiology
Vol. 36, Issue 12
1 Dec 2015
  • Table of Contents
  • Index by author
  • Complete Issue (PDF)
Advertisement
Print
Download PDF
Email Article

Thank you for your interest in spreading the word on American Journal of Neuroradiology.

NOTE: We only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it, and that it is not junk mail. We do not capture any email address.

Enter multiple addresses on separate lines or separate them with commas.
Recognizing Autoimmune-Mediated Encephalitis in the Differential Diagnosis of Limbic Disorders
(Your Name) has sent you a message from American Journal of Neuroradiology
(Your Name) thought you would like to see the American Journal of Neuroradiology web site.
CAPTCHA
This question is for testing whether or not you are a human visitor and to prevent automated spam submissions.
Cite this article
A.J. da Rocha, R.H. Nunes, A.C.M. Maia, L.L.F. do Amaral
Recognizing Autoimmune-Mediated Encephalitis in the Differential Diagnosis of Limbic Disorders
American Journal of Neuroradiology Dec 2015, 36 (12) 2196-2205; DOI: 10.3174/ajnr.A4408

Citation Manager Formats

  • BibTeX
  • Bookends
  • EasyBib
  • EndNote (tagged)
  • EndNote 8 (xml)
  • Medlars
  • Mendeley
  • Papers
  • RefWorks Tagged
  • Ref Manager
  • RIS
  • Zotero
0 Responses
Respond to this article
Share
Bookmark this article
Recognizing Autoimmune-Mediated Encephalitis in the Differential Diagnosis of Limbic Disorders
A.J. da Rocha, R.H. Nunes, A.C.M. Maia, L.L.F. do Amaral
American Journal of Neuroradiology Dec 2015, 36 (12) 2196-2205; DOI: 10.3174/ajnr.A4408
del.icio.us logo Twitter logo Facebook logo Mendeley logo
  • Tweet Widget
  • Facebook Like
  • Google Plus One
Purchase

Jump to section

  • Article
    • Abstract
    • ABBREVIATIONS:
    • Conclusions
    • REFERENCES
  • Figures & Data
  • Info & Metrics
  • Responses
  • References
  • PDF

Related Articles

  • No related articles found.
  • PubMed
  • Google Scholar

Cited By...

  • Imaging Review of Paraneoplastic Neurologic Syndromes
  • Hippocampal network abnormalities explain amnesia after VGKCC-Ab related autoimmune limbic encephalitis
  • Anti-Amphiphysin-associated limbic encephalitis in a 72-year-old patient with aortic angiosarcoma
  • Clinical Reasoning: A 30-year-old man with headache and sleep disturbance
  • Autoimmune Encephalitis: Pathophysiology and Imaging Review of an Overlooked Diagnosis
  • Crossref
  • Google Scholar

This article has not yet been cited by articles in journals that are participating in Crossref Cited-by Linking.

More in this TOC Section

  • Diagnostic Neuroradiology of Monoclonal Antibodies
  • Cerebral ADC Changes in Fabry Disease
  • ML for Glioma Molecular Subtype Prediction
Show more Adult Brain

Similar Articles

Advertisement

Indexed Content

  • Current Issue
  • Accepted Manuscripts
  • Article Preview
  • Past Issues
  • Editorials
  • Editor's Choice
  • Fellows' Journal Club
  • Letters to the Editor
  • Video Articles

Cases

  • Case Collection
  • Archive - Case of the Week
  • Archive - Case of the Month
  • Archive - Classic Case

More from AJNR

  • Trainee Corner
  • Imaging Protocols
  • MRI Safety Corner
  • Book Reviews

Multimedia

  • AJNR Podcasts
  • AJNR Scantastics

Resources

  • Turnaround Time
  • Submit a Manuscript
  • Submit a Video Article
  • Submit an eLetter to the Editor/Response
  • Manuscript Submission Guidelines
  • Statistical Tips
  • Fast Publishing of Accepted Manuscripts
  • Graphical Abstract Preparation
  • Imaging Protocol Submission
  • Evidence-Based Medicine Level Guide
  • Publishing Checklists
  • Author Policies
  • Become a Reviewer/Academy of Reviewers
  • News and Updates

About Us

  • About AJNR
  • Editorial Board
  • Editorial Board Alumni
  • Alerts
  • Permissions
  • Not an AJNR Subscriber? Join Now
  • Advertise with Us
  • Librarian Resources
  • Feedback
  • Terms and Conditions
  • AJNR Editorial Board Alumni

American Society of Neuroradiology

  • Not an ASNR Member? Join Now

© 2025 by the American Society of Neuroradiology All rights, including for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies, are reserved.
Print ISSN: 0195-6108 Online ISSN: 1936-959X

Powered by HighWire